An early pregnancy loss (EPL) or first-trimester miscarriage is the most common
complication of human reproduction, with an incidence ranging between 50 and 70% of all
conceptions. Two-thirds of EPL cases present with a thinner and fragmented trophoblastic
shell, and reduced cytotrophoblast invasion of the tips of the spiral arteries. This leads to
incomplete plugging during early pregnancy, and premature onset of the maternal
circulation throughout the placenta. The excessive entry of maternal blood into the …